What does the processor clock speed depend on? Clock frequency

As you know, the processor clock speed is the number of operations performed per unit of time, in this case, per second.

But this definition is not enough to fully understand what this concept actually means and what significance it has for us, ordinary users.

You can find many articles on this subject on the Internet, but all of them are missing something.

More often than not, this “something” is the very key that can open the door to understanding. Therefore, we tried to collect all the basic information, as if it were a puzzle, and put it together into a single, holistic picture.

Detailed definition

So, clock speed is the number of operations a processor can perform per second. This value is measured in Hertz.

This unit of measurement is named after a famous scientist who conducted experiments aimed at studying periodic, that is, repeating processes.

What does Hertz have to do with operations in a second?

This question arises when reading most articles on the Internet from people who did not study physics very well at school (maybe through no fault of their own). The fact is that this unit precisely denotes the frequency, that is, the number of repetitions of these same periodic processes per second.

It allows you to measure not only the number of operations, but also various other indicators. For example, if you make 3 entries per second, then your breathing rate is 3 Hertz.

As for processors, a variety of operations can be performed here, which boil down to calculating certain parameters. Actually, the number of calculations of these same parameters per second is called the clock frequency.

How simple it is!

In practice, the concept “Hertz” is used extremely rarely; more often we hear about megaHertz, kiloHertz, and so on. Table 1 shows the “decoding” of these values.

Table 1. Designations

The first and last are currently used extremely rarely.

That is, if you hear that it has 4 GHz, then it can perform 4 billion operations every second.

Not at all! This is the average today. Surely, very soon we will hear about models with a frequency of terahertz or even more.

How is it formed

So, it contains the following devices:

• clock resonator - is an ordinary quartz crystal, enclosed in a special protective container;
• clock generator - a device that converts one type of oscillation into another;
• metal cover;
• data bus;
• textolite substrate to which all other devices are attached.

So, a quartz crystal, that is, a clock resonator, forms oscillations due to the supply of voltage. As a result, oscillations of electric current are formed.

A clock generator is attached to the substrate, which converts electrical oscillations into pulses. They are transmitted to data buses, and thus the result of the calculations reaches the user.

This is exactly how the clock frequency is obtained. It's interesting that regarding this concept There are a huge number of misconceptions, in particular regarding the connection between nuclei and frequency. Therefore, this is also worth talking about.

How frequency relates to cores

The core is, in fact, the processor. The core refers to the very crystal that forces the entire device to perform certain operations. That is, if a particular model has two cores, this means that it contains two crystals that are connected to each other using a special bus.

According to a common misconception, the more cores, the higher the frequency. It’s not for nothing that developers are now trying to fit more and more cores into them. But that's not true. If it is 1 GHz, even if it has 10 cores, it will still remain 1 GHz and will not become 10 GHz.

Probably every user who is little familiar with computers has encountered a bunch of incomprehensible characteristics when choosing a central processor: technical process, cache, socket; I turned for advice to friends and acquaintances who were competent in the matter of computer hardware. Let's look at the variety of various parameters, because the processor is the most important part of your PC, and understanding its characteristics will give you confidence in your purchase and further use.

CPU

CPU personal computer is a chip that is responsible for performing any operations with data and controls peripheral devices. It is contained in a special silicon package called a die. For short designation use the abbreviation - CPU (CPU) or CPU(from the English Central Processing Unit - central processing device). In the modern computer components market there are two competing corporations, Intel and AMD, who constantly participate in the race for the performance of new processors, constantly improving the technological process.

Technical process

Technical process is the size used in the production of processors. It determines the size of the transistor, the unit of which is nm (nanometer). Transistors, in turn, form the internal core of the CPU. The bottom line is that continuous improvement in manufacturing techniques makes it possible to reduce the size of these components. As a result, there are much more of them placed on the processor chip. This helps improve the performance of the CPU, so its parameters always indicate the technology used. For example, the Intel Core i5-760 is made using a 45 nm process technology, and the Intel Core i5-2500K is made using a 32 nm process. Based on this information, you can judge how modern the processor is and how superior it is in performance to its predecessor, but when choosing, you must also take into account a number of other parameters.

Architecture

Processors are also characterized by such a characteristic as architecture - a set of properties inherent in a whole family of processors, usually produced over many years. In other words, architecture is their organization or internal design of the CPU.

Number of cores

Core- the most important element of the central processor. It is a part of the processor that can execute one thread of instructions. The cores differ in cache memory size, bus frequency, manufacturing technology, etc. Manufacturers assign new names to them with each subsequent technological process (for example, the AMD processor core is Zambezi, and Intel is Lynnfield). With the development of processor production technologies, it has become possible to place more than one core in one case, which significantly increases CPU performance and helps to perform several tasks simultaneously, as well as use several cores in programs. Multi-core processors will be able to quickly cope with archiving, video decoding, the operation of modern video games, etc. For example, Intel's Core 2 Duo and Core 2 Quad processor lines, which use dual-core and quad-core CPUs, respectively. Currently, processors with 2, 3, 4 and 6 cores are widely available. A larger number of them are used in server solutions and are not required by the average PC user.

Frequency

In addition to the number of cores, performance is affected by clock frequency. The value of this characteristic reflects the performance of the CPU in the number of clock cycles (operations) per second. Another important characteristic is bus frequency(FSB - Front Side Bus) demonstrating the speed at which data is exchanged between the processor and computer peripherals. The clock frequency is proportional to the bus frequency.

Socket

So that the future processor, when upgraded, is compatible with the existing one motherboard, you need to know its socket. A socket is called connector, in which the CPU is installed on the computer motherboard. The socket type is characterized by the number of legs and the processor manufacturer. Different sockets correspond to specific types of CPUs, so each socket allows the installation of a specific type of processor. Intel uses the LGA1156, LGA1366 and LGA1155 socket, while AMD uses AM2+ and AM3.

Cache

Cache- the amount of memory with a very high access speed, necessary to speed up access to data that is permanently located in memory with a slower access speed ( RAM). When choosing a processor, remember that increasing the cache size has a positive effect on the performance of most applications. The CPU cache has three levels ( L1, L2 and L3), located directly on the processor core. It receives data from RAM for higher processing speed. It is also worth considering that for multi-core CPUs, the amount of first level cache memory for one core is indicated. L2 cache performs similar functions, but is slower and larger in size. If you plan to use the processor for resource-intensive tasks, then a model with a large second-level cache will be preferable, given that for multi-core processors the total L2 cache size is indicated. The most powerful processors, such as AMD Phenom, AMD Phenom II, Intel Core i3, Intel Core i5, Intel Core i7, Intel Xeon, are equipped with L3 cache. The third level cache is the least fast, but it can reach 30 MB.

Energy consumption

The power consumption of a processor is closely related to its manufacturing technology. With decreasing nanometers of the technical process, increasing the number of transistors and increasing clock frequency CPU power consumption increases. For example, Intel Core i7 processors require up to 130 watts or more. The voltage supplied to the core clearly characterizes the power consumption of the processor. This parameter is especially important when choosing a CPU to use as a multimedia center. Modern processor models use various technologies that help combat excessive power consumption: built-in temperature sensors, automatic control systems for voltage and frequency of processor cores, energy-saving modes when the CPU load is light.

Additional features

Modern processors have acquired the ability to work in 2- and 3-channel modes with RAM, which significantly affects its performance, and also support a larger set of instructions, which increases their functionality by new level. GPUs process video on their own, thereby offloading the CPU, thanks to technology DXVA(from the English DirectX Video Acceleration - video acceleration by the DirectX component). Intel uses the above technology Turbo Boost to dynamically change the clock frequency of the central processor. Technology Speed ​​Step manages CPU power consumption depending on processor activity, and Intel Virtualization Technology hardware creates a virtual environment for using multiple operating systems. Also, modern processors can be divided into virtual cores using technology Hyper Threading. For example, a dual-core processor is capable of dividing the clock speed of one core into two, resulting in high processing performance using four virtual cores.

When thinking about the configuration of your future PC, do not forget about the video card and its GPU(from the English Graphics Processing Unit - graphic processing unit) - the processor of your video card, which is responsible for rendering (arithmetic operations with geometric, physical objects, etc.). The higher the frequency of its core and memory frequency, the less load on the central processor will be. Particular attention to GPU Gamers must show themselves.

* There are always pressing questions about what you should pay attention to when choosing a processor, so as not to make a mistake.

Our goal in this article is to describe all the factors affecting processor performance and other operational characteristics.

It's probably no secret that the processor is the main computing unit of a computer. You could even say – the most important part of the computer.

It is he who processes almost all processes and tasks that occur in the computer.

Be it watching videos, music, Internet surfing, writing and reading in memory, processing 3D and video, games. And much more.

Therefore, to choose C central P processor, you should treat it very carefully. It may happen that you decide to install a powerful video card and a processor that does not correspond to its level. In this case, the processor will not reveal the potential of the video card, which will slow down its operation. The processor will be fully loaded and literally boiling, and the video card will wait its turn, working at 60-70% of its capabilities.

That is why, when choosing a balanced computer, Not costs neglect the processor in favor of a powerful video card. The processor power must be enough to unlock the video card's potential, otherwise it's just a waste of money.

Intel vs. AMD

*catch up forever

Corporation Intel, has enormous human resources and almost inexhaustible finances. Many innovations in the semiconductor industry and new technologies come from this company. Processors and developments Intel, on average by 1-1,5 years ahead of engineers' achievements AMD. But as you know, for the opportunity to have the most modern technologies- you have to pay.

Processor pricing policy Intel, is based both on number of cores, amount of cache, but also on "freshness" of architecture, performance per clockwatt,chip process technology. The meaning of cache memory, “subtleties of the technical process” and others important characteristics The processor will be discussed below. For the possession of such technologies as well as a free frequency multiplier, you will also have to pay an additional amount.

Company AMD, unlike the company Intel, strives for the availability of its processors for the end consumer and for a competent pricing policy.

One could even say that AMD– « People's stamp" In its price tags you will find what you need at a very attractive price. Usually a year after the company has a new technology Intel, an analogue of technology appears from AMD. If you are not chasing the highest performance and pay more attention to the price tag than to the availability of advanced technologies, then the company's products AMD– just for you.

Pricing policy AMD, is based more on the number of cores and very little on the amount of cache memory and the presence of architectural improvements. In some cases, for the opportunity to have third-level cache memory, you will have to pay a little extra ( Phenom has a 3 level cache memory, Athlon content with only limited, level 2). But sometimes AMD spoils his fans possibility to unlock cheaper processors to more expensive ones. You can unlock the cores or cache memory. Improve Athlon to Phenom. This is possible thanks to the modular architecture and the lack of some cheaper models, AMD simply disables some blocks on the chip of more expensive ones (software).

Cores– remain practically unchanged, only their number differs (true for processors 2006-2011 years). Due to the modularity of its processors, the company does an excellent job of selling rejected chips, which, when some blocks are turned off, become a processor from a less productive line.

The company has been working for many years on a completely new architecture under the code name Bulldozer, but at the time of release in 2011 year, the new processors did not show the best performance. AMD I blamed the operating systems for not understanding the architectural features of dual cores and “other multithreading.”

According to company representatives, you should wait for special fixes and patches to experience the full performance of these processors. However, at the beginning 2012 year, company representatives postponed the release of an update to support the architecture Bulldozer for the second half of the year.

Processor frequency, number of cores, multi-threading.

During times Pentium 4 and before him - CPU frequency, was the main processor performance factor when selecting a processor.

This is not surprising, because processor architectures were specially developed to achieve high frequencies, and this was especially reflected in the processor Pentium 4 on architecture NetBurst. High frequency was not effective with the long pipeline that was used in the architecture. Even Athlon XP frequency 2GHz, in terms of productivity was higher than Pentium 4 c 2.4 GHz. So it was pure marketing. After this error, the company Intel realized my mistakes and returned to the side of good I started working not on the frequency component, but on performance per clock. From architecture NetBurst I had to refuse.

What same for us gives multi-core?

Quad-core processor with frequency 2.4 GHz, in multi-threaded applications, will theoretically be the approximate equivalent of a single-core processor with a frequency 9.6 GHz or 2-core processor with frequency 4.8 GHz. But that's only theoretically. Practically However, two dual-core processors in a two-socket motherboard will be faster than one 4-core processor at the same operating frequency. Bus speed limitations and memory latency take their toll.

* subject to the same architecture and amount of cache memory

Multi-core makes it possible to perform instructions and calculations in parts. For example, you need to perform three arithmetic operations. The first two are executed on each of the processor cores and the results are added to the cache memory, where the next action can be performed with them by any of the free cores. The system is very flexible, but without proper optimization it may not work. Therefore, optimization for multi-cores is very important for processor architecture in an OS environment.

Applications that "love" and use multithreading: archivers, video players and encoders, antiviruses, defragmenter programs, graphic editors , browsers, Flash.

Also, “lovers” of multithreading include such operating systems as Windows 7 And Windows Vista , as well as many OS kernel based Linux, which work noticeably faster with a multi-core processor.

Most games, sometimes a 2-core processor at a high frequency is quite enough. Now, however, more and more games are being released that are designed for multi-threading. Take at least these SandBox games like GTA 4 or Prototype, in which on a 2-core processor with a frequency lower 2.6 GHz– you don’t feel comfortable, the frame rate drops below 30 frames per second. Although in this case, most likely the reason for such incidents is “weak” optimization of games, lack of time or “indirect” hands of those who transferred games from consoles to PC.

When buying a new processor for gaming, you should now pay attention to processors with 4 or more cores. But still, you should not neglect 2-core processors from the “upper category”. In some games, these processors sometimes feel better than some multi-core ones.

Processor cache memory.

is a dedicated area of ​​the processor chip in which intermediate data between processor cores, RAM and other buses is processed and stored.

It runs at a very high clock speed (usually at the frequency of the processor itself), has very high bandwidth and the processor cores work directly with it ( L1).

Because of her shortage, the processor can be idle in time-consuming tasks, waiting for new data to arrive in the cache for processing. Also cache memory serves for records of frequently repeated data, which, if necessary, can be quickly restored without unnecessary calculations, without forcing the processor to waste time on them again.

Performance is also enhanced by the fact that the cache memory is unified and all cores can equally use data from it. This gives additional features for multithreaded optimization.

This technique is now used for Level 3 cache. For processors Intel there were processors with unified level 2 cache memory ( C2D E 7***,E 8***), thanks to which it appeared this method increase multi-threaded performance.

When overclocking a processor, the cache memory can become a weak point, preventing the processor from being overclocked beyond its maximum operating frequency without errors. However, the advantage is that it will run at the same frequency as the overclocked processor.

In general, the larger the cache memory, the faster CPU. In which applications exactly?

All applications that use a lot of floating point data, instructions, and threads make heavy use of the cache memory. Cache memory is very popular archivers, video encoders, antiviruses And graphic editors etc.

A large amount of cache memory is favorable games. Especially strategies, auto-simulators, RPGs, SandBox and all games where there are a lot of small details, particles, geometry elements, information flows and physical effects.

Cache memory plays a very important role in unlocking the potential of systems with 2 or more video cards. After all, some part of the load falls on the interaction of the processor cores, both among themselves and for working with streams of several video chips. It is in this case that the organization of cache memory is important, and a large level 3 cache memory is very useful.

Cache memory is always equipped with protection against possible errors ( ECC), if detected, they are corrected. This is very important, because a small error in the memory cache, when processed, can turn into a gigantic, continuous error that will crash the entire system.

Proprietary technologies.

(hyper-threading, HT)–

the technology was first used in processors Pentium 4, but it didn’t always work correctly and often slowed down the processor more than it speeded it up. The reason was that the pipeline was too long and the branch prediction system was not fully developed. Used by the company Intel, there are no analogues of the technology yet, unless we consider it an analogue? what the company’s engineers implemented AMD in architecture Bulldozer.

The principle of the system is that for each physical core, one two computing threads, instead of one. That is, if you have a 4-core processor with HT (Core i 7), then you have virtual threads 8 .

The performance gain is achieved due to the fact that data can enter the pipeline already in the middle of it, and not necessarily at the beginning. If some processor blocks capable of performing this action are idle, they receive the task for execution. The performance gain is not the same as that of real physical cores, but comparable (~50-75%, depending on the type of application). It is quite rare that in some applications, HT negatively affects for performance. This is due to poor optimization of applications for this technology, the inability to understand that there are “virtual” threads and the lack of limiters for loading threads evenly.

TurboBoost – a very useful technology that increases the operating frequency of the most used processor cores, depending on their load level. It is very useful when the application does not know how to use all 4 cores and loads only one or two, while their operating frequency increases, which partially compensates for performance. The company has an analogue of this technology AMD, is technology Turbo Core.

, 3 dnow! instructions. Designed to speed up the processor in multimedia computing (video, music, 2D/3D graphics, etc.), and also speed up the work of programs such as archivers, programs for working with images and video (with the support of instructions from these programs).

3dnow! – quite old technology AMD, which contains additional instructions for processing multimedia content, in addition to SSE first version.

*Specifically, the ability to stream process single-precision real numbers.

Availability of the new version– is a big plus, the processor begins to perform certain tasks more efficiently with proper software optimization. Processors AMD have similar names, but slightly different.

* Example - SSE 4.1(Intel) - SSE 4A(AMD).

In addition, these instruction sets are not identical. These are analogues with slight differences.

Cool'n'Quiet, SpeedStep CoolCore Enchanted Half State(C1E) AndT. d.

These technologies, at low loads, reduce the processor frequency by reducing the multiplier and core voltage, disabling part of the cache, etc. This allows the processor to heat up much less, consume less energy, and make less noise. If power is needed, the processor will return to normal state in a split second. On standard settings Bios They are almost always turned on; if desired, they can be disabled to reduce possible “freezes” when switching in 3D games.

Some of these technologies control the rotation speed of fans in the system. For example, if the processor does not need increased heat dissipation and is not loaded, the processor fan speed is reduced ( AMD Cool'n'Quiet, Intel Speed ​​Step).

Intel Virtualization Technology And AMD Virtualization.

These hardware technologies allow you to use special programs run several operating systems at once, without any significant loss in performance. It is also used for the proper operation of servers, because often more than one OS is installed on them.

Execute Disable Bit AndNo eXecute Bit – technology designed to protect a computer from virus attacks and software errors that can cause the system to crash through buffer overflow.

Intel 64 , AMD 64 , EM 64 T – this technology allows the processor to work both in an OS with a 32-bit architecture and in an OS with a 64-bit architecture. System 64 bit– from the point of view of benefits, for the average user it differs in that this system can use more than 3.25GB of RAM. On 32-bit systems, use b O A larger amount of RAM is not possible due to the limited amount of addressable memory*.

Most applications with 32-bit architecture can be run on a system with a 64-bit OS.

* What can you do if back in 1985, no one could even think about such gigantic, by the standards of that time, volumes of RAM.

Additionally.

A few words about.

This point is worth paying close attention to. The thinner the technical process, the less energy the processor consumes and, as a result, the less heat it gets. And among other things, it has a higher safety margin for overclocking.

The more refined the technical process, the more you can “wrap” into a chip (and not only) and increase the capabilities of the processor. Heat dissipation and power consumption are also reduced proportionally, due to lower current losses and a reduction in core area. You can notice a tendency that with each new generation of the same architecture on a new technological process, energy consumption also increases, but this is not the case. It’s just that manufacturers are moving towards even higher performance and are stepping beyond the heat dissipation line of the previous generation of processors due to an increase in the number of transistors, which is not proportional to the reduction in the technical process.

Built into the processor.

If you don't need a built-in video core, then you shouldn't buy a processor with it. You will only get worse heat dissipation, extra heating (not always), worse overclocking potential (not always), and overpaid money.

In addition, those cores that are built into the processor are only suitable for loading the OS, surfing the Internet and watching videos (and not of any quality).

Market trends are still changing and the opportunity to buy a powerful processor from Intel Without a video core, it drops out less and less. The policy of forced imposition of the built-in video core appeared with processors Intel under the code name Sandy Bridge, the main innovation of which was the built-in core on the same technical process. The video core is located together with processor on one chip, and not as simple as in previous generations of processors Intel. For those who do not use it, there are disadvantages in the form of some overpayment for the processor, the displacement of the heating source relative to the center of the heat distribution cover. However, there are also advantages. Disabled video core, can be used for very fast video encoding technology Quick Sync coupled with special software that supports this technology. In the future, Intel promises to expand the horizons of using the built-in video core for parallel computing.

Sockets for processors. Platform lifespan.

Intel has harsh policies for its platforms. The lifespan of each (the start and end dates of processor sales for it) usually does not exceed 1.5 - 2 years. In addition, the company has several parallel developing platforms.

Company AMD, has the opposite policy of compatibility. On her platform on AM 3, all future generation processors that support DDR3. Even when the platform reaches AM 3+ and later, either new processors for AM 3, or new processors will be compatible with old motherboards, and it will be possible to make a painless upgrade for your wallet by changing only the processor (without changing the motherboard, RAM, etc.) and flashing motherboard. The only nuances of incompatibility may arise when changing the type, since a different memory controller built into the processor will be required. So compatibility is limited and not supported by all motherboards. But in general, for the budget-conscious user or those who are not used to completely changing the platform every 2 years, the choice of the processor manufacturer is clear - this AMD.

CPU cooling.

Comes standard with processor BOX-a new cooler that will simply cope with its task. It is a piece of aluminum with a not very high dispersion area. Efficient coolers with heat pipes and plates attached to them are designed for highly efficient heat dissipation. If you do not want to hear extra noise from the fan, then you should purchase an alternative, more efficient cooler with heat pipes, or a closed or open-type liquid cooling system. Such cooling systems will additionally provide the ability to overclock the processor.

Conclusion.

All important aspects affecting the performance and performance of the processor have been considered. Let's repeat what you should pay attention to:

• Select manufacturer
• Processor architecture
• Technical process
• CPU frequency
• Number of processor cores
• Processor cache size and type
• Technology and instruction support
• High-quality cooling

We hope this material will help you understand and decide on choosing a processor that meets your expectations.

Then the clock frequency is the most well-known parameter. Therefore, it is necessary to specifically understand this concept. Also, within the framework of this article, we will discuss understanding the clock speed of multi-core processors, because there are interesting nuances that not everyone knows and takes into account.

Enough for a long time the developers relied specifically on increasing the clock frequency, but over time, the “fashion” has changed and most of the developments go towards creating a more advanced architecture, increasing cache memory and developing multi-cores, but no one forgets about the frequency.

What is the processor clock speed?

First you need to understand the definition of “clock frequency”. The clock speed tells us how many calculations the processor can perform per unit time. Accordingly, the higher the frequency, the more operations the processor can perform per unit time. The clock speed of modern processors is generally 1.0-4 GHz. It is determined by multiplying the external or base frequency by a certain coefficient. For example, Intel processor The Core i7 920 uses a bus speed of 133 MHz and a multiplier of 20, resulting in a clock speed of 2660 MHz.

The processor frequency can be increased at home by overclocking the processor. There are special processor models from AMD and Intel, which are aimed at overclocking by the manufacturer itself, for example, the Black Edition from AMD and the K-series line from Intel.

I would like to note that when buying a processor, frequency should not be the decisive factor in your choice, because only part of the processor’s performance depends on it.

Understanding Clock Speed ​​(Multi-Core Processors)

Now, in almost all market segments there are no longer single-core processors left. Well, it’s logical, because the IT industry does not stand still, but is constantly moving forward by leaps and bounds. Therefore, you need to clearly understand how the frequency is calculated for processors that have two or more cores.

While visiting many computer forums, I noticed that there is a common misconception about understanding (calculating) the frequencies of multi-core processors. I’ll immediately give an example of this incorrect reasoning: “There is a 4-core processor with a clock frequency of 3 GHz, so its total clock frequency will be equal to: 4 x 3 GHz = 12 GHz, right?” - No, not so.

I will try to explain why the total processor frequency cannot be understood as: “number of cores X specified frequency."

Let me give you an example: “A pedestrian is walking along the road, his speed is 4 km/h. This is similar to a single-core processor on N GHz. But if 4 pedestrians are walking along the road at a speed of 4 km/h, then this is similar to a 4-core processor on N GHz. In the case of pedestrians, we do not assume that their speed will be 4x4 = 16 km/h, we simply say: "4 pedestrians walk at a speed of 4 km/h". For the same reason, we do not perform any mathematical operations with the frequencies of the processor cores, but simply remember that a 4-core processor is N GHz has four cores, each of which operates at a frequency N GHz".

Parameter name	Meaning
Article topic:	Clock frequency.
Rubric (thematic category)	Computers

Memory that can be addressed by the CPU.

Degree of chip integration (chip) shows how many transistors can fit in it. For an Intel Pentium (80586) processor, this is approximately 3 million transistors per 3.5 cm 2.

Processor size shows how many bits of data it can receive and process in its registers at a time (in one clock cycle). Modern Intel Pentium family processors are 32-bit

Operating clock frequency determines the speed at which operations are carried out in the processor. Today, processor operating frequencies reach more than 1 billion cycles per second (1 GHz).

The CPU is in direct contact with the PC's RAM. The data processed by the CPU must be temporarily located in RAM and is again retrieved from memory for further processing. For the CPU86/88, this addressing area extends to a maximum of 1 MB; the 80486 processor can already provide access to 4 GB of memory.

Real Address Mode - real addressing mode (or simply real mode - Real Mode), fully compatible with 8086. In this mode, addressing up to 1 MB is possible physical memory(in fact, like the 80286, almost 64 KB more).

Protected Virtual Address Mode - protected virtual addressing mode (or simply protected mode - Protected Mode). In this mode, the processor allows you to address up to 4 GB of physical memory, through which, using the page addressing mechanism, up to 64 TB of virtual memory of each task can be mapped.

A significant addition is Virtual 8086 Mode - 8086 virtual processor mode. This mode is a special state of a protected mode task in which the processor functions as an 8086. In this mode, several tasks with resources isolated from each other can be executed in parallel on one processor.

An important difference between the elements RAM from other storage devices is the access time, characterized by the time interval during which information is written to or retrieved from memory. Access time for external storage medium such as hard drive, is expressed in milliseconds, and for a memory element it is measured in nanoseconds.

Disk drives (Floppy Disk Drive, FDD) are the oldest PC peripherals. They use floppy disks as a storage medium. (Floppy) 3.5" diameters and 5.25" dimensions.

To write and read information, it is extremely important to split the floppy disk into certain sections - to create a logical structure. This is done by formatting using a special command, for example, for DOS - the command Format. The floppy disk is divided into tracks ( Tracks) and sectors (Sectors), in Fig. this partition is shown.

The main criterion for evaluation hard drive is its capacity, that is, the maximum amount of data that must be written to the medium

When accessing large arrays of data, the magnetic heads must be positioned on the disk much more often than when accessing small arrays and data that are sequentially located on the disk. So the read and write speed is determined by the average access time (A verage Seek Time) to various objects on the disk. For best IDEs and SCSI HDD this time is less than 10 ms.

Data transfer speed is proposed as the second parameter to evaluate the performance of a hard drive. It is important to note that for modern models it is 10 MB/s.

A monitor is a device for visually displaying information. The signals that the monitor receives (numbers, symbols, graphic information and synchronization signals) are generated by the video card. However, the monitor and video card are a kind of tandem, which for optimal performance must be configured accordingly.

Video card.

For most applications, VGA resolution is sufficient. At the same time, graphics-oriented programs work much better and faster (there are cases when they are not even installed if the installed resolution or video card does not correspond to their capabilities), if the information density of the screen is higher. For this, it is extremely important to increase the resolution. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, standard VGA developed into the so-called Super VGA (SVGA) standard. The standard resolution in this mode is 800x600 pixels.

Let's note a regularity: with a video memory capacity of 256 KB and SVGA resolution, only 16 colors can be provided; 512 KB of video memory makes it possible to display 256 color shades at the same resolution. Cards with 1 MB of memory, and this has now become commonplace, can display 32768, 65536 (HiColor) or even 16.7 million (TrueColor) color shades at the same resolution.

According to modern medical and psychological assessments, the human eye does not perceive screen flickering associated with image updating only at a vertical scanning frequency of at least 70 Hz. With increased resolution, the image on the monitor screen begins to flicker, which greatly increases fatigue and negatively affects vision.

Main consumer parameters monitors are screen size, screen mask pitch, maximum image refresh rate and protection class.

The most convenient and versatile monitors are those with screen sizes of 15 and 17 inches. To work with graphics, monitors with large screen sizes (19-21 inches) are used.

The pitch of the screen mask determines the clarity of the image (resolution). Today, a pitch of 0.25-0.27 mm is used. All monitors with a grain greater than 0.28mm fall into the "cheap" and "rough" category. The best monitors have a grain of 0.26 mm, and the highest quality monitor we know of (and, naturally, the most expensive) has this value of 0.21 mm.

The image refresh rate also determines the clarity and stability of the image and must be at least 75 Hz.

The protection class determines whether the monitor meets safety requirements. Fulfillment of the most stringent operational safety requirements is ensured by the TSO-99 standard.

Image properties depend not only on the monitor, but also on the err properties and settings of the board located in system unit(video adapter). The monitor and video adapter must match each other (for example, a modern video adapter must have at least 4 MB of memory).

Let's say a few words about trade designations. In catalogs and advertisements for the sale of computers, special designations of its characteristics have become widespread. Let's look at the method of designating the type of computer adopted in most advertisements using a specific example:

PIII-600-Intel BX/64/6.4Gb/SVGA 8Mb/CD/SB16/ATX

Here PHI is the processor type - Pentium III;

600 - processor clock frequency in MHz;

BX - motherboard type;

64 - amount of RAM in MB;

6.4Gb - volume hard drive- 6.4 GB;

SVGA - video card type;

8Mb - amount of video memory in MB;

CD - indicates the presence of a CD drive;

SB16 - type sound card(Sound Blaster);

Clock frequency. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Clock frequency." 2017, 2018.